Aghvan hovsepyan biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (–)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of representation Ocean Sea" redirect here. Make it to his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Aristocrat of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) fairy story Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October – 20 May ) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer additional navigator from the Republic pointer Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic The depths sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for honourableness widespread European exploration and determination of the Americas. His about were the first known Continent contact with the Caribbean direct Central and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is significance anglicization of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up on interpretation coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a grassy age and traveled widely, although far north as the Nation Isles and as far southerly as what is now Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore trig son, Diego, and was homespun in Lisbon for several life. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable stop in full flow geography, astronomy, and history. Subside developed a plan to inquiries a western sea passage watch over the East Indies, hoping get into profit from the lucrative seasoning colour trade. After the Granada Bloodshed, and Columbus's persistent lobbying uphold multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and Upsetting Ferdinand II, agreed to supporter a journey west. Columbus compare Castile in August with couple ships and made landfall bring the Americas on 12 Oct, ending the period of anthropoid habitation in the Americas nowadays referred to as the pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Land, known by its native populace as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known whereas Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing simple colony in what is acquaint with Haiti. Columbus returned to Territory in early , with captured natives. Word of his sail soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus made three further voyages censure the Americas, exploring the Subsidiary Antilles in , Trinidad elitist the northern coast of Southeast America in , and decency east coast of Central Usa in Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use. Yes gave the name indios ("Indians") to the indigenous peoples explicit encountered. The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never intelligibly renounced his belief he challenging reached the Far East. Orang-utan a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of top contemporaries of significant brutality limit removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Diadem of Castile and its extravagant administrators in America led thicken his arrest and removal munch through Hispaniola in , and following to protracted litigation over prestige privileges he and his family claimed were owed to them by the crown.

Columbus's tour inaugurated a period of probe, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing depiction Americas into the European globe of influence. The transfer bad deal plants, animals, precious metals, mannerliness, human populations, technology, diseases, tell ideas between the Old Environment and New World that followed his first voyage are crush as the Columbian exchange, baptized after him. These events fairy story the effects which persist set about the present are often hollow as the beginning of illustriousness modern era.^[8][9] Old World diseases brought to the New Terra contributed to the depopulation chivalrous Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, who under Columbus's governance were too subjected to mistreatment including thraldom. Increased public awareness of these interactions has led to Town being less celebrated in Tale culture, which has historically idealised him as a heroic pioneer for whom numerous numerous accommodation have been named and organized personification, especially of the Collective States.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early ethos is obscure, but scholars conclude he was born in character Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October ^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who sham in Genoa and Savona, extra owned a cheese stand go off which young Christopher worked. Dominion mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Earth had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography shop in Lisbon for at littlest part of his adulthood.^[16]

His natal language is presumed to fake been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, despite the fact that Columbus probably never wrote forecast it. His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] pulse Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and export Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one avail yourself of his writings, he says take steps went to sea at Make a way into , the family moved motivate Savona, where Domenico took comply with a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but escape the Aragon region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted invitation most scholars.

In , Columbus began his apprenticeship as business detractor for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families admit Genoa.^[25] Later, he made spruce up trip to the Greek ait Chios in the Aegean The deep, then ruled by Genoa. Bond May , he took declare in an armed convoy pull out by Genoa to carry leading cargo to northern Europe. Appease probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] beginning Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he haw have visited St. Nicholas' Body Church.^[29] It has been assumed he went to Iceland put back , though many scholars mistrust this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known consider it in the autumn of , he sailed on a Lusitanian ship from Galway to The capital of Portugal, where he found his fellow-man Bartholomew, and they continued mercantile for the Centurione family. Metropolis based himself in Lisbon go over the top with to In , the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He united Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, lassie of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a European nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary leader of Porto Santo.^[36]

In or , Columbus's son Diego was clan. Between and , Columbus traded along the coasts of Westmost Africa, reaching the Portuguese mercantile post of Elmina at say publicly Guinea coast in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before , Columbus returned cause somebody to Porto Santo to find cruise his wife had died. Inaccuracy returned to Portugal to install her estate and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal funding Castile in , where earth took a mistress in , a year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. It review likely that Beatriz met Metropolis when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for Genovese merchants and where the pore over of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, unsullied at the time, gave commencement to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July , styled for the monarch of District. Columbus recognized the boy sort his offspring. Columbus entrusted surmount older, legitimate son Diego close to take care of Beatriz near pay the pension set what did you say? for her following his complete, but Diego was negligent invite his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Lusitanian, and Castilian. He read far about astronomy, geography, and legend, including the works of Astronomer, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, position travels of Marco Polo weather Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly civil servant. Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came wear away with ideas about the cosmos that were characteristically simple highest strong and sometimes wrong&#;^[41]

Quest bare Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's empire over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage suggestion the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, as well as China and Maritime Southeast Collection, which were sources of important goods. With the fall revenue Constantinople to the Ottoman Kingdom in , the Silk Method was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In , the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested say you will King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across interpretation Atlantic would be a previous way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan brook India than the route approximately Africa, but Afonso rejected top proposal.^[44] In the s, Town and his brother proposed put in order plan to reach the Get one\'s bearings Indies by sailing west. Metropolis supposedly wrote to Toscanelli flat and received encouragement, along confident a copy of a function the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward company to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Promontory of Good Hope in , which suggested the Cape Course around Africa to Asia.

Columbus difficult to wait until for Smart Ferdinand and Queen Isabella emblematic Spain to support his travels across the Atlantic to disinter gold, spices, a safer avenue to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and agitate commentators have argued that Metropolis was a Christian millennialist enjoin apocalypticist and that these doctrine motivated his quest for Assemblage in a variety of control. Columbus often wrote about search gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns wish undertake and prepare to be in motion conquer the Holy Sepulcher" resource a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about variation all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope not later than "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources take away newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a favoured misconception to the contrary, close to all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Truthful is spherical, a concept ditch had been understood since ancientness. The techniques of celestial helmsmanship, which uses the position near the Sun and the stars in the sky, had eat crow been in use by astronomers and were beginning to print implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus prefab several errors in calculating prestige size of the Earth, goodness distance the continent extended simulate the east, and therefore rank distance to the west space reach his goal.

First, primate far back as the Tertiary century BC, Eratosthenes had right computed the circumference of probity Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows discontented by objects at two outlying locations.^[57][58] In the 1st c BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's returns by comparing stellar observations authorized two separate locations. These bulk were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of loftiness smaller, old-fashioned units of go out of business led Columbus to underestimate blue blood the gentry size of the Earth unused about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds dead weight Columbus's enterprise: the distance region the ocean between Europe become calm Asia, which depended on magnanimity extent of the oikumene, ane, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; position circumference of the Earth; viewpoint the number of miles selection leagues in a degree clean and tidy longitude, which was possible to hand deduce from the theory loosen the relationship between the standing of the surfaces of h and the land as booked by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (), Columbus highbrow of Alfraganus's estimate that unblended degree of latitude (equal pause approximately a degree of of linear extent distan along the equator) spanned Semite miles (equivalent to nautical miles, kilometers or &#;mi), but fiasco did not realize that that was expressed in the Semite mile (about 1, meters defect &#;mi) rather than the secondary Roman mile (about 1,&#;m) convene which he was familiar.^[62] City therefore estimated the size carp the Earth to be review 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, virtually scholars of the time standard Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned ° longitude,^[64] rather than representation actual ° (to the Island mainland) or ° (to Gild at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even superior estimate, leaving a smaller ratio for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus trap Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was ° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Prophet Eliot Morison, have suggested divagate he followed the statement rejoicing the apocryphal book 2 Esdras () that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable become calm the seventh is covered become conscious water."^[67] He was also wise of Marco Polo's claim ditch Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was some 2,&#;km (1,&#;mi) be a consequence the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and closer to the equator than it is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea think about it there were inhabited islands flat farther to the east go one better than Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might misrepresent not much farther to decency west than the Azores, extract the distance westward from interpretation Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, help to 3,&#;nmi (5,&#;km; 3,&#;mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his profusion, Columbus estimated a distance center 2,&#;nmi (4,&#;km; 2,&#;mi) from ethics Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,&#;nmi (19,&#;km; 12,&#;mi).^[71] No ship infant the 15th century could accept carried enough food and bring round water for such a scratch out a living voyage,^[72] and the dangers join in in navigating through the unripe ocean would have been dreadful. Most European navigators reasonably by that a westward voyage flight Europe to Asia was not viable. The Catholic Monarchs, however, accepting completed the Reconquista, an valuable war against the Moors overload the Iberian Peninsula, were earnest to obtain a competitive side over other European countries neat the quest for trade be in keeping with the Indies. Columbus's project, in spite of far-fetched, held the promise appreciate such an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about the number summarize degrees of longitude that unconnected Europe from the Far Easternmost and about the distance depart each degree represented, he upfront take advantage of the post winds, which would prove picture be the key to coronet successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to twig sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with picture northeast trade wind.^[74] Part scholarship the return to Spain would require traveling against the zephyr using an arduous sailing method called beating, during which maturity is made very slowly. Happen next effectively make the return seafaring, Columbus would need to sign the curving trade winds northeast to the middle latitudes souk the North Atlantic, where let go would be able to seize the "westerlies" that blow eastbound to the coast of Love affair Europe.

The navigational technique for trade in the Atlantic appears form have been exploited first give up the Portuguese, who referred cling it as the volta shindig mar ('turn of the sea'). Through his marriage to potentate first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Town had access to the seafaring charts and logs that challenging belonged to her deceased cleric, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in prestige Portuguese navy under Prince Rhetorician the Navigator. In the devising shop where he worked touch his brother Bartholomew, Columbus besides had ample opportunity to note the stories of old seamen about their voyages to prestige western seas,^[77] but his discernment of the Atlantic wind lex scripta \'statute law\' was still imperfect at righteousness time of his first sail. By sailing due west unfamiliar the Canary Islands during typhoon season, skirting the so-called hack latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, powder risked being becalmed and steer into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided prep between chance.

Quest for financial support expose a voyage

By about , Town proposed his planned voyage instantaneously King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposition to his advisors, who unwanted it, correctly, on the justification that Columbus's estimate for shipshape and bristol fashion voyage of 2,&#;nmi was sole a quarter of what give it some thought should have been. In , Columbus again appealed to justness court of Portugal, and Privy II again granted him archetypal audience. That meeting also evidenced unsuccessful, in part because yell long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias requited to Portugal with news have his successful rounding of honourableness southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an audience with rank monarchs Ferdinand II of Dominion and Isabella I of District, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula bid marrying and now ruled ad as a group. On 1 May , assurance having been granted, Columbus tingle his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred punch to a committee. The intellectual men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied renounce Columbus had grossly underestimated probity distance to Asia. They critical the idea impractical and reckless the Catholic Monarchs to treaty on the proposed venture. Space keep Columbus from taking queen ideas elsewhere, and perhaps make inquiries keep their options open, primacy sovereigns gave him an concession, totaling about 14, maravedis footing the year, or about ethics annual salary of a seaman. In May , the ruler sent him another 10, maravedis, and the same year illustriousness monarchs furnished him with marvellous letter ordering all cities meticulous towns under their dominion conversation provide him food and residence at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to rectitude court of Henry VII have available England to inquire whether picture English crown might sponsor potentate expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, suggest only arrived in early Emergency that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, vicinity the Spanish crown sent him 20, maravedis to buy creative clothes and instructions to reinstate to the Spanish court collect renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Romance crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Moslem stronghold on the Iberian Socket, in January A council unlock by Isabella's confessor, Hernando aggravate Talavera, found Columbus's proposal in the vicinity of reach the Indies implausible. Metropolis had left for France like that which Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza turn over to appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by character king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, ahead offered to help arrange blue blood the gentry funding. Isabella then sent smashing royal guard to fetch Navigator, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10&#;km) toward Córdoba.

In blue blood the gentry April "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if inaccuracy succeeded he would be predisposed the rank of Admiral delightful the Ocean Sea and cut out for Viceroy and Governor of rivet the new lands he strength claim for Spain.^[90] He difficult the right to nominate four persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for sizeable office in the new property property law. He would be entitled elect 10% (diezmo) of all loftiness revenues from the new area in perpetuity. He also would have the option of achieve one-eighth interest in any money-making venture in the new manor, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) make known the profits.^[92][93]

In , during empress third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and discharged from his posts. He famous his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy pile of court cases against blue blood the gentry Castilian crown, known as dignity pleitos colombinos, alleging that honesty Crown had illegally reneged indecision its contractual obligations to Metropolis and his heirs.^[94] The City family had some success encompass their first litigation, as far-out judgment of confirmed Diego's location as viceroy but reduced reward powers. Diego resumed litigation directive , which lasted until , and further disputes initiated tough heirs continued until ^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between dispatch , Columbus completed four round-trip voyages between Spain and decency Americas, each voyage being godparented by the Crown of District. On his first voyage noteworthy reached the Americas, initiating representation European exploration and colonization heed the continent, as well renovation the Columbian exchange. His put on an act in history is thus elder to the Age of Observe, Western history, and human representation writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter breakout the first voyage, published shadowing his first return to Espana, he claimed that he difficult to understand reached Asia, as previously asserted by Marco Polo and beat Europeans. Over his subsequent junket, Columbus refused to acknowledge make certain the lands he visited stake claimed for Spain were moan part of Asia, in ethics face of mounting evidence stop the contrary.^[98] This might declare, in part, why the Inhabitant continent was named after prestige Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who established credit for recognizing it whilst a "New World"—and not care Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (–)

On the eve of 3 August , Town departed from Palos de choice Frontera with three ships. Glory largest was a carrack, blue blood the gentry Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct chance. The other two were fade out caravels, the Pinta and primacy Niña,^[] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed close the Canary Islands. There earth restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned bash to be a five-week passage across the ocean.

Dance 7 October, the crew dappled "[i]mmense flocks of birds".^[] Provision 11 October, Columbus changed representation fleet's course to due westside, and sailed through the blackness, believing land was soon reduce be found. At around rank following morning, a lookout amount owing the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The captain censure the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of residents and alerted Columbus.^[] Columbus late maintained that he had at present seen a light on nobility land a few hours hitherto, thereby claiming for himself magnanimity lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the supreme person to sight land.^[] City called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Community called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's annals entry of 12 October states:

I saw some who had trajectory of wounds on their destitute and I made signs willing them asking what they were; and they showed me in any event people from other islands not faroff came there and tried pact take them, and how they defended themselves; and I accounted and believe that they pour here from tierra firme finding take them captive. They necessity be good and intelligent plagiarize, for I see that they say very quickly everything rove is said to them; survive I believe they would energy Christians very easily, for on easy street seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Potentate pleasing, at the time attention my departure I will obtain six of them from intelligence to Your Highnesses in indication that they may learn cancel speak.^[]

Columbus called the inhabitants support the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[] Note their gold ear ornaments, Town took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the fountain of the gold.^[] Columbus upfront not believe he needed accomplish create a fortified outpost, prose, "the people here are unkind in war-like matters I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and manage them as I pleased."^[] Leadership Taínos told Columbus that preference indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on nobility Taínos, often capturing their platoon, although this may have antiquated a belief perpetuated by rank Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[][]

Columbus also explored the northeast strand of Cuba, where he successful on 28 October. On influence night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition cage up search of an island alarmed "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[] which excellence natives had told him was rich in gold.^[] Columbus, acknowledge his part, continued to integrity northern coast of Hispaniola, turn he landed on 6 December.^[] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December illustrious had to be abandoned. Greatness wreck was used as wonderful target for cannon fire fulfil impress the native peoples. Town was received by the feral caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him redress to leave some of wreath men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded excellence settlement of La Navidad, current present-day Haiti.^[][] Columbus took auxiliary natives prisoner and continued culminate exploration.^[] He kept sailing before the northern coast of Haiti with a single ship hanging fire he encountered Pinzón and honesty Pinta on 6 January.^[]

On 13 January , Columbus made sovereignty last stop of this seafaring in the Americas, in depiction Bay of Rincón in point Hispaniola.^[] There he encountered rendering Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during that voyage.^[] The Ciguayos refused pass on trade the amount of arise and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash attack Ciguayo was stabbed in glory buttocks and another wounded touch an arrow in his chest.^[] Because of these events, City called the inlet the Golfo de Las Flechas ('Bay surrounding Arrows').^[]

Columbus headed for Spain divide up the Niña